ASSESSMENT OF THE PROBABILITY OF ABIOGENESIS by Steve Hinrichs http://members.aol.com/SHinrichs9/abiopb.htm 1. DEFINITION OF TERMS: 2. INTRODUCTION 3. THE NATURE OF 2LT & ENTROPY 4. SIMPLE EXAMPLES OF THE APPLICABILITY OF PROBABILITY TO IDEAL SYSTEMS 5. THE NATURE OF LIFE 6. REDUNDANT (ORDERED) ARRANGEMENTS COMPARED TO SPECIFIC COMPLEX ARRANGEMENTS 7. OPEN SYSTEMS 8. ASSESSMENT OF THE PROBABILITY OF ABIOGENSIS 8.1 Consideration of Constant Stereochemistry of a Simple Cell 8.2 Consideration of Configurational Entropy 8.3 Consideration of Information Content (Shannon Entropy) 9. ANALOGIES AND HYPOTHETICAL SCENARIOS FOR ABIOGENESIS 9.1 Analogies to Abstract Mathematical and Geometrical Concepts 9.2 Small Single Molecule Self-Replicators 9.3 RNA-World Hypothesis 10. CONCLUSION 11. REFERENCES 1. DEFINITION OF TERMS: 2LT- 2nd Law of Thermodynamics Ordered Arrangement- An arrangement with a periodic pattern; thus, only a relatively short algorithm which defines the repeating pattern is needed to completely define the arrangement. Complex arrangement- An arrangement with a no periodic pattern; thus, the smallest algorithm that can completely define this arrangement is close to the size of this arrangement. Complex random arrangement- A complex arrangement that serves no specific function. Complex specific arrangement- A complex arrangement that can perform a specific function. Biospace- A very complex many dimensional space. Each dimension represents some variable that defines the chemical structure of life forms. Positioned throughout this space are all the possible life forms. Fitness terrain- The fitness for survival of a certain life form is dependent upon its' ability to survive in its' environment and the variables which define its' position in biospace. This fitness for survival variable changes as the biospace or environmental variables change. These changes can be thought of as defining the slopes, valleys, peaks and plateaus of this terrain. Fundamentally, the claim of the evolutionists is that all life evolved through randomly meandering through this terrain. 10^X- 1 with X zeroes after it. Mole- 6.02x10^23 molecules 2. INTRODUCTION The astonishing order of life brings to mind the obvious questions, how in the world did it originate? The amazing thing about life that makes it unique in the known universe is it's ability to reproduce itself or self-replicate. The process by which the first replicators that led to DNA based life in a cell is termed abiogensis. This article discusses the probability of abiogensis by natural processes. It also discusses natural processes that have been proposed for abiogensis. 3. THE NATURE OF 2LT & ENTROPY Probabilistic analysis is an important part of determining if a proposed a natural process is realistically plausible. 2LT is often defined according to entropy, "The entropy of a closed system increases during any natural process that occurs spontaneously. (1)" A proper definition of entropy is related to the number of different ways that the system's mass or energy can be arranged. The more ways it can be arranged the more freedom it has to produce disorder; thus, it is assigned a higher entropy value. A logarithm of the probability associated with a certain state is used to define entropy so that the entropy value is directly proportional to the mass of the system rather than an exponential of the mass of the system. The standard formulation of entropy is S=k*ln(omega) where k is the boltzman constant and omega is the number of different ways that the system can be arranged for a given state. When comparing two different states of a system, omega should sufficiently measure the relative probability between the two different states which the change of the system is being considered. If the relative probability between two possible states can be determined then it can be determined if the system will spontaneously change from one to the other if there are no other constraints. Configuration entropy focuses on the arrangement of mass throughout that system; thus, the number of ways the mass in the system can be arranged and is related to the configuration entropy. Brillouin (22) has shown that S=Kln(omega) not only defines the entropy for how the energy is arranged, but also how the mass is arranged (configurational entropy) such as in molecular sequences. The statistical evaluation explained in Ref. 22 to show the S=Kln(omega) relationship for the entropy of the mass is essentially the same as for the configuration of the energy as derived in Ref. 1. This is because changes in either the mass or energy distributions follow the same fundamental principal, "The direction of spontaneous change is away from a state of lower intrinsic probability towards the one of greater intrinsic probability (1)". The thermodynamic view of entropy focuses on the arrangement of energy throughout that system; thus, the number of ways the energy in the system can be arranged is related to the thermal entropy. Consideration of heat flow (dQ) determines the following relation for entropy, dS=dQ/(temperature). According to 2LT for any spontaneous change, the energy in the system always becomes more evenly distributed. This definition is often applied to engines to predict their efficiency which according to 2LT can never be perfect, "No process is possible in which the sole result is absorption of heat from a reservoir and its conversion to work.(1)" 4. SIMPLE EXAMPLES OF THE APPLICABILITY OF PROBABILITY TO SIMPLE IDEAL SYSTEMS The flipping of a coin is a common process that involves probability. The result of flipping a coin obviously has two different possible states that are essentially equally probable; thus, applying statistics is simple and straight forward to determine the probability of a coin landing heads or tails, 50% or (1/2) for either case. Through simple statistics the chance of a certain percentage of coins falling heads or tails can be easily determined. For example, the chance that that 100 coins will fall heads is simply determined: (1/2)^100 which is 1 in approximately 10^30. This value is so small because the state of 100% heads is only 1 of the many different possible and equally probable states. The ideal gas law (Pressure=constant/V); is an excellent example of the state of matter (gas molecules) and energy following the 2LT because the only energy to consider is the purely random and chaotic, kinetic energy of the translation of the many atoms. The ideal gas law can be derived by applying 2LT to the entropy of an ideal gas (1). If some other principle of physics or chemistry affects the state of the gas, it deviates from the ideal gas law. Thus, when applying the 2LT one must properly take into account the affect of other scientific principles that are affecting the response of the matter and energy under consideration. 5. THE NATURE OF LIFE The key to feature of life is the DNA which it is contained in the cells which are the basic building blocks of life. The DNA sequence is basically a 4 letter language. 4 different nucleotides are used to form molecular chains that make up the DNA, which then form the information or blueprint that is used to define all the rest of the chemistry that builds a living animal or plant. DNA and RNA are nucleic acids. As shown in Figure 1, The first step in the copying process is the transcription process where RNA is formed from DNA which is accomplished with the help of a RNA polymerase enzyme. Then as shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2 this RNA is translated into protein molecules. These protein molecules make up the structure and perform the functions of the cell. 20 different amino acids are used to form molecular chains that make up protein molecules. Flow of Genetic Information in Protein Synthesis of Eukaryotic Translation Process of RNA to Proteins The protein molecule spontaneously folds into a specific 3-D geometry that allows it to perform it's specific chemical functions as shown in the example of a sperm whale myoglobin in Figure 3. The protein molecule is contained in gray. Figure 3 shows how the myoglobin acts on the hemoglobin. The 3-D shape matches well with other molecules the it acts on so it can perform it's function as a catalyst or enzyme. Certain amino acids strategically located within the 3-D structure chemically react with other molecules in order to bring the proper change to their chemistry. The nucleic acids also naturally form a coiled-up 3-D chemical structure. Geometric Shape of Sperm Whale Myoglobin Protein (17) 6. REDUNDANT (ORDERED) ARRANGEMENTS COMPARED TO SPECIFIC COMPLEX ARRANGEMENTS Evolutionists claim that the origination of the specific complexity life is not an improbable event. They point out examples of redundant order that spontaneously forms and then imply that the specific complexity of life could just as well form. Evolutionists often compare the complexity of life to the redundant ordered arrangement of atoms in a crystal. For instance, in Ref. 2 and 3 evolutionists use the example of the snowflake for comparing to the order of life. The snowflake is a crystal structure. Crystal structures are made up of many repetitive units (atoms) which is similar to DNA; however, crystal structures are different in that these repetitive units are related to one another in constant fashion. The geometrical arrangement of crystals is repetitive so that they form an essentially constant lattice structure. There are only fourteen ways to arrange lattice points which can be defined by only seven different crystal systems (triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, tetragonal, cubic, hexagonal and rhombohedral). Atoms are repeating units with symmetry; thus, when packed together they form symmetrical structure. The unique feature about snowflakes is that their crystal structure (hexagonal) is formed in the air. This gives them the freedom to form their unusual and beautiful shapes. Still the fundamental structure is a redundant arrangement of atoms. Sometimes an atom will not pack in properly or a different size atom will get packed in which will produce a local aberration or dislocation in the crystal structure. Thus, every real crystal and snowflake is different depending upon the defect. Even though every snowflake is different, the fundamental structure is still a redundant arrangement of atoms. Due to the symmetry of many of the basic building blocks in nature, it is not suprising nor is it improbable that often redundant order is spontaneously produced. DNA and proteins certainly have their redundancy, respectively, they are made up of 4 or 20 repeated units; however, they are not repeated in any sort of constant fashions as in crystal structure. This allows DNA or proteins to form many different possible sequences; thus, it can be very informational intensive where the crystal structure is not. Granted not every site in the sequence is crucial, approximately 10% percent of the sites in proteins are chemically active sites. The other sites are still important for they specify the series of steps comprising the folding pathway which ultimate determine the important 3 dimensional structure of the molecule (17). The proper positioning of crucial amino acids is key to the development of life. For example, the sickle cell mutation in humans is caused by only a single amino acid substitution (valine, where glutamic acid should be) in a long-chained protein. A single amino acid represents only one of the billions of amino acids that make up the unique protein sequences of a human. The sickle cell state has a significant effect on the whole human body. It causes the four-chained hemoglobin molecule to form incorrectly when oxygen is low. Defective hemoglobins bind together, forming long rods that stretch the red blood cell into a crescent. These "sickled" red blood cells cannot fit through small blood vessels causing blood circulation problems which can cause serious medical problems and sometimes death. Thus, this state can have a dramatic effect on the survival or the continuation of the existence of that certain individual. This is quite different than analogies of nonredundant order that have been used to attempt to dismiss the relevance of probability. Would a change in just one molecule per billion affect the very continuation of the existence of a certain snowflake, tornado, graded river bed, stalactite, sand dune or water swirl? (examples that evolutionist gives in Ref. 2&3) Definitely not. This shows the stark contrast between the nonredundant complex information intensive characteristics of biological molecules of life and redundant order. Systems far from equilibrium do produce order as explained by Prigogine in Ref. 18. Water forming a swirl while going down a drain is an example of this phenomenon. The intermediate states that these systems pass through on their way to equilibrium have a high level of redundant order such as the symmetrical shape of the water swirl. However, the important feature of biological molecules is that they have a specific high complexity which is a completely different kind of arrangement of molecules then the redundant order that is produced in certain systems far from equilibrium. There is no apparent connection between the kind of spontaneous ordering that occurs from energy flow in such systems and the work required to build specific information intensive macromolecules such as DNA and protein. A properly arranged chain of amino acids does not have any special symmetry that causes it to form spontaneously out of basic non-replicating constituents. Thus, the flawed analogies of redundant order do not have any significant relevance when comparing to the nonredundant order of DNA or proteins in biological molecules. 7. OPEN SYSTEMS Another reason why some evolutionists claim that probability is not significantly relevant to the origination of life is the fact the life lives in an open system. Planet earth is an open system with the sun a constant source for energy input. The sun does provide the energy which allows for life to continue their existence by maintaining their highly complex specific arrangement at the expense of creating more disorder through their waste products. But the Origin of life involves not just the maintaining of this specific complexity but also the origination of this specific complexity. Energy flow through a certain system can decrease the entropy of a specific part of a system at the expense of another part of the system increase in entropy. This is often observed when intelligently designed engines flow heat through their system to convert it into mechanical work. Thus, if there is a physical mechanism in place to properly use the flow of energy, useful arrangement of mass or energy that represents a local decrease in entropy. However, just because energy is flowing through a system, does not mean that any kind of order or complexity will be spontaneously produced. For instance, there is a certain entropy decrease in the chemical formation of 100 complete human males out of a prebiotic soup in just a few minutes. There is certainly enough mass in the rest of the earth that can increase in entropy during the same time as this formation in order to make that total system of the earth still have a total increase in entropy. However, just because energy was flowing through the prebiotic soup does not mean the above scenario is plausible. There needs to be some sort of physical mechanism to use the flow of energy to produce the proper arrangement of molecules or local decrease in entropy. This is just what a typically factory does, it uses the flow of energy through the factory to create an increase in order or specific complexity in a piece of material which is their product. A intelligent factory has all the tools and devices in place which efficiently use the energy to convert the disordered material into a highly organized product. The challenge for originating useful DNA through energy flow is finding a suitable mechanism for using the energy flow to produce the proper nucleic acid sequences. Ref. 5 critics the different mechanisms which evolutionists propose could produce the proper arrangement of either nucleic or amino acids. They question how the decrease in thermal entropy from energy flow through the system could be coupled to do the proper configurational entropy work required. "There is no apparent connection between the kind of spontaneous ordering that occurs from energy flow through systems and the work required to build aperiodic informational intensive macromolecules like DNA. Apparently a very special apparatus (or factory) would be necessary to play the crucial role of a template, metabolic motor, etc..., that would direct the flow of energy in such a way as to create the unique information that defines life." In order for this apparatus to properly define the DNA, it would have to at least the same level of information of the DNA. Thus, the question of how did this apparatus originate would be just as relevant as the question of how did the DNA originate. 8. ASSESSMENT OF THE PROBABILITY OF ABIOGENSIS The previous discussions has shown that there is no special symmetry about life forming DNA or protein that causes that proper DNA or protein sequences to form spontaneously. In addition, it appears that there is apparently no special feature in nature that causes the proper DNA or protein structures to form spontaneously, even in an environment which has energy flowing through it. Thus, the only natural mechanism left for naturally producing the proper DNA or protein sequences for the 1st reproducer is just the pure chance of them forming through random intermingling in a prebiotic soup. 8.1 Consideration of Constant Stereochemistry of a Simple Cell All reproducing organisms are made of cells which contain both nucleic acids and proteins.. The cell is the simplest known replicator. Thus, a crucial key is obviously developing this fundamental building block. Ref. 19 estimates that the simplest replicator had at least 300 proteins. This appears reasonable since the simplest known cell, Mycoplasma hominis H39, has around 600 different kinds of proteins (4). In order for a molecule to directly replicate itself or pass on information to other molecules in an efficient manner it has to have certain geometrical features at the instant it replicates or passes on information. In order to efficiently transfer it's sequence the units of the sequence being copied must be exposed for bonding to the new molecule being formed and aligned in a manner so that the complementary pairing relationships can be made. In the case of direct replication the pairing relationships are self-complimentary. The bonding locations must be on the same side of the chain so that the new chain can be continuously arranged from one side of the template. This is analogous to the requirement for all letters on a piece of paper being copied in a Xerox machine to be on one side of that piece of paper being copied. Otherwise a much more complicated copy machine is needed in order to make the copy in a continuous fashion. In biological molecules this fundamental requirement is met by all the amino acids being left handed and all the nucleic acids being right handed. This makes all the pairing molecules line up on the same side of the chain as in the replication of DNA shown in Figure 4. In addition, if the molecule does not have constant stereochemistry (constant left or right handed) it does not fold properly to it's 3-D shape. This creates a challenge for origins scenarios because naturally in chemical soups the percentage of left and right handed nucleotides is always essentially 50% (racemic). "The probability of the formation of one antipode or the other is therefore the same. As the law of averages applies to chemical reactions the appearance of an excess of one antipode is very improbable, and, in fact, we never encounter it under the conditions of non-living nature and in laboratory synthesis. (Ref. 6, pg. 59)" DNA Replication The requirement of constant stereochemistry for just the simplest hypothetical simple cell of just 300 proteins can be simply determined by assuming that the formation of a left or right handed molecule is 1/2. A conservatively small protein length of 100 units will be assumed. The chance of getting constant left or right handed stereochemistry is (1/2)^(300*100)*2=~1/10^9031. This calculated odds are so small compared to the life (10^17 seconds) and size (approx. 10^83 total atoms and 10^44 amino acids conservatively assumed in primeval soup, Ref. 19) of the universe. An conservative assumption that all the amino acids on earth reacted perfectly efficiently since the big bang give 10^44*10^17=10^61 attempts which is trivially small compared to 1 in 10^9031. Thus, it appears extremely unlikely that the most simplest cell would form by chance. Conservative assumptions: 1. Only alpha-links occur between amino acids making polypeptides or only correct linking at the 3,5 position of sugar occurring in polynucleotides in nucleic acids. A quantification of these problems of specificity is addressed in Ref. 20. 2. Only the typical 20 amino acids or 4 nucleotides are included into the molecule 3. No bonding occurs with the myriad of all the other types of molecules. 4. All of the twenty amino acids and the nucleic acids did form naturally. 5. Formed chains are protected from ultraviolet light 6. Consider that if all the proper proteins or nucleic acids did form, they would all be in the same place at the same time and then form something like a cell which had a wall to hold things together. 7. Every unusable chain is immediately dismantle so another try can be made. 8.2 8.2 Consideration of Configurational Entropy Evolutionist often dismiss probabilistic evaluation by pointing out the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics is not applicable. This may be true as long as the definition of entropy is limited to the configuration of the energy of the system. For example, Thomas Cech discovered that RNA does have some modest catalytic abilities; thus, energy flow could be solved by this feature for at least some initial stages of the evolution process. However, as pointed out in Section 3, probabilistic evaluation applies just as well to the way the mass is configured. Biological molecules are sequences of basic units so it is appropriate to consider the probability of certain sequences forming. Ref. 5 present an evaluation of the probability of just one specific protein sequence 100 amino acids long forming by chance. The make their assessment by determining the configurational entropy which they appropriately distinguish from thermal entropy so that the Gibbs free energy equation can be properly solved. Based upon the assumption of a 1 mole/liter (M) concentration of each amino acids they determine for one specific protein sequence a 10^-338 M concentration. This is again trivially small compared to the life and size of the universe. The 1 M assumption is conservative because amino acids give up a water molecule when joined; thus, in a water solution their concentration would be minimized. Ref. 5 also points out that the configurational entropy for obtaining a typical DNA molecule for a protein is approximately twelve times greater than the protein they use in their example; thus, achieving the corresponding DNA is even more unlikely. In addition, current research implies that primordial atmosphere was neutral. Such an environment would also greatly minimize the amount of nucleic or amino acids in the hypothetical prebiotic soup. Granted there are many protein chains that are functional which is a unconservative point in regard to the calculation just presented. However, it is questionable if this unconservative assumption makes up for the significant conservative assumptions just mentioned and 1-5 listed in Section 8.1. 8.3 Consideration of Information Content (Shannon Entropy) Entropy can be defined in terms of the information content of the molecule. This is termed Shannon entropy and is defined in Ref. 19. Ref. 19 uses the protein iso-1-cytochrome c as an example for determining the information content of a protein. Many of the sites in a protein chain, especially those that are not chemically active, can be replaced by other functionally equivalent amino acid. Ref. 19 properly considers this by using an effective number of amino acids at each site. Ref. 19 also relates sequence of the amino acid to nucleic acids by considering the triplet relationship. Thus, Ref. 19 makes an accurate assessment of the fundamental information content of the system. Based upon this evaluation Ref. 19 determines that of all possible sequences (1.0x10^168), 2.3x10^93 of them are functionally equivalent which represent a very small fraction (2.3x10^-75) of the total. The same conservative assumption mentioned in Section 8.1 (1-5) and 8.2 apply. Thus, it is not realistic to expect to get by chance a protein that performs the function of the iso-1-cytochrome c protein. Granted, there are other function involved in the self-replication process than the specific one that iso-1-cytochrome c performs. However, most all enzymes catalyze degragative processes; for example Ref. 24 states, "Nucleases and proteases catalyze the breakdown of nucleic acids and proteins, respectively. Deaminases and decarboxylases catalyze the deamination of amines and decarboxylation of carboxylic acids, respectively - and on and on." Thus, most enzymes involved with the self-replication process in life, in isolation perform degragating processes. 9. ANALOGIES AND HYPOTHETICAL SCENARIOS FOR ABIOGENESIS The previous discussion has shown that obtaining anything like a cell or even a simple functional protein by chance is not realistic considering the life and size of the universe. Thus, naturally evolutionist have proposed that more simple forms different than cells such as single RNA strands were the first reproducers. However, it is questionable if such simple forms would lead to a cell. One of the key features unique to a cell is it membrane wall the keeps the contents of the cell together so all of the many proteins can work together to accomplish their tasks. There is no reason for independent single RNA or protein strands to be suited for working together until they form a working unit as in the case of the cell. 9.1 Analogies to Abstract Mathematical and Geometrical Concepts Analogies to geometrical shapes that develop from the repetition of some algorithm are often made. For example, the Sierpinski Gasket is produced by the regression of inscribed triangles. This algorithm will be run on a computer program and it's shape will be plotted on the screen. First, it should be pointed out the complete item, computer and screen that reproduced these shape is not being replicated so the relevance of such analogies is questionable. Ref. 23 points out a wide variety of order that develops spontaneously; however, ref. 23 does not evaluate these systems to see if the important features of the concept relate to the crucial features of the chemistry in biology that allow it to self-replicate in order to determine if the analogy has any relevance at all. Section 9.2 does give a good example of an geometrical analogy that is accurate and indeed they did get replication. However, once the analogy is applied to the molecules we find in life today, it breaks down because all biomolecules involved with the self-replication process fold over so there is no symmetry plane over which the self-complementary pairing relationships can be made as discussed in Section 9.2. Thus, in order for analogies to be relevant it is evident that the crucial features involved must be properly represented. 9.2 Small Single Molecule Self-Replicators Scientist have actually gotten small molecular replicators to form from non-self-replicating basic constituents (13). Self-replication was obtained by creating a small rigid self-complimentary molecule that can pair up with basic constituents to form another one of itself. At first they tried to make longer less rigid molecules that better simulate proteins or nucleic acids. They discovered serious chemical problems. "The chain was so long and flexible that the self-replicating structure doubled over on itself, rather like a jackknife folding shut." These chains folded over like the protein and nucleic acid do in all known life forms. Then they tried shortened more rigid molecules that poorly simulate proteins or nucleic acids which do fold. "The remedy called for inserting a larger and more rigid molecule in place of the single chain to prevent folding. Our choice was a larger stacking surface, a napthalene, bolstered by a less flexible link between the two components, a cyclic ribose group" These self replicating molecules were made up of the combination of just two small rigid molecules from a solution that was specifically designed to contain just their components. Thus, a self-replication of just two units formed as shown schematically in Figure 5. Figure 6 shows a diagram of the chemical structure that Figure 5 is an analogy for. The geometrical concept in Figure 5 well simulates the crucial features of an self-replicating molecule that these evolutionist helped develop. The positive and negative region in Figure 6 relate to the hydrogen and oxygen molecules that allow for the weak hydrogen bond that allows the molecule to assemble a replication and then come apart to do more replication. Figure 6 shows the condition of the first step in Figure 5 where one AB molecule is bringing together an A and B molecule not yet covalently bonded together. The symmetry plane in Figure 5 identifies the actual geometry which allows the self-complementary pairing to occur. Since the crucial features that allow the molecules to self-replicate are properly present in this geometrical diagram the analogy is accurate and indeed molecular self-replication did occur in the experiment. Molecule AB did replicate by drawing from a soup of non self-replicating units molecule A and molecule B. Protein molecules are made up of a sequence of 50-3000 units of amino acids which have a backbone structure that allows them to fold over. These large molecules are not stable in a straightened out shape. Rather, they form a coiled up shape as shown in Figure 3 that keeps the molecule closed up so that it cannot form self-complimentary relationships as in the above examples. Proteins molecules start to fold over once they are 6 amino acid in length or longer. Nucleic acids are also not stable in a straightened out structure. They too will fold over like proteins do. As shown in Figure 2, the RNA ribosome properly exposes and lines up the proper amino acid so that proper amino acid sequence can form. In the transcription process which converts DNA to RNA, the RNA polymerase performs a similar function as the RNA ribosome. Just like a folded up and crumpled piece of paper cannot be copied by a Xerox machine, folded up molecules cannot be copied by a chemical apparatus. The paper or molecules need to be laid out flat or bonding sites need to be exposed so that the pair relationships can be made. This is what is done by the RNA shown in Figure 2. Thus, at least two different complex components are needed to replicate biological molecules. Without such an interdependent system coiled-up molecules could not form the complimentary relationships which are crucial for self-replication. There is no symmetry plane in the protein molecule shown in Figure 3 over which complementary pairing relationships could be made. If life evolved, first single self-replicating molecules must have formed and then somehow evolved into something that resembles a cell. In order to resemble the molecules in a cell these small uncoiled self-replicating molecules would eventually have to increase in size which would then create a problem because they would start folding over then they would not be able to self replicate. They would have the same folding problems that these intelligent designers initially had in their experiment. The three dimensional folded shape is a common and important characteristic of biological molecules. The three dimensional shape determines important properties of a protein molecule. Thus, if anything the results in Ref. 13 emphasize that formation of RNA or protein self-replicators of the size we find in biology has serious fundamental chemical problems. 9.3 RNA-World Hypothesis RNA is very similar to DNA and is the key molecule that allows DNA to make proteins. Presently, the best proposal for abiogenesis is the RNA-world hypothesis. According to this theory self-replicating RNA molecules were the first self-replicators that began the replication process that eventually led into something that resembles a cell. According to Ref. 25, 5 steps are involved; 1) Synthesis of polynucleotides, 2) Development of RNA replication, 3) RNA dependent peptide synthesis, 4) Development of translation, 5) Emergence of protein synthesis. Stage 3 and on is proposed to have developed in some sort of proto-cell. Ref. 25 gives brief comments on some of the chemistry that could have been involved in these steps; however, the further one investigate the chemistry of hypothetical scenarios the more one discovers problems for the RNA-World Hypothesis. Getting longer chains that represent biological molecules appears impossible. A look at the 3-D coiled structure shown in Figure 2 shows the great difficulty in getting biological molecules to self-replicate on their own with out the interdependent system of nucleic acids and proteins in all modern life. 1) The 3-D structure does not have geometrical properties that would allow it to act as a template off which a replication of itself could form through symmetrical relationships. 2) Many of the angles are to tight and the density of the molecule so great that an attempt at replication would cause interference problems know to chemist as steric effects. 3) If a self replicator did form it could not get out because it would be all tangle up in this 3-D structure. Thus, it would have to break up in order to get out then it would not be a replication anymore. This explains part of the reasons that they have only had self-replication success with very short molecules (as explained in Section 9.2) which are very different then the long molecules which make up life. As mention above without the interdependent system of nucleic and amino acids, coiled up molecules could not form the complimentary relationships which are crucial for self-replication. Nucleic acids are formed by proteins and proteins are defined by DNA. Nucleic acids and proteins are the crucial molecules which make up life. This creates the chicken and the egg paradox, which came first?. This issues is a serious problem for all abiogensis scenarios including the RNA world hypothesis as Orgel (14) points out, "Hence, the central problem of origin of life research can be refined to ask, by what series of chemical reactions did this interdependent system of nucleic acids and proteins come into being? Anyone trying to solve this puzzle immediately encounters a paradox. Nowadays nucleic acids are synthesized only with the help of proteins, and proteins are synthesized only if their corresponding nucleotide sequence is presence. It is extremely improbable that protein and nucleic acids, both of which are structurally complex, arose spontaneously in the same place at the same time. Yet it also seems impossible to have one without the other." The interdependency of proteins and nucleic acids gives the impression that no matter how you arrive on the fitness terrain, the pathway to anything that resembles a cell, appears insurmountable considering the limitations of the size and age of the universe. Ref. 27 shows a wide variety of success that can be achieved when using already synthesized polymerase proteins and designed experiments to select out the preferred results. But these successful results are the result of already having in place important parts of the process; thus, are not appropriate analogies for the question of the origin of self-replicating RNA and cells. The blind evolutionary process does not have the foresight of these intelligent experimenters. Microspheres have been proposed as the first proto-cells (26). Microsphere grow by accretion which is the attraction of like molecules to the micelle by simple physical forces. The process of microsphere growth has little if any similarity to the process which contemporary cells grow. There is nothing about the accretion that is analogous to the replication process of information (RNA sequences) within the cell that has to occur in order to pass down the cells heritage as is done in the Mitosis process. The constant stereochemistry issue is also a problem for the RNA world hypothesis as Orgel acknowledges in Ref. 14, "Equally disappointing we can induce copying of the original template only when we run our experiments with nucleotides having a right-handed configuration. All nucleotides synthesized biologically today are right-handed. Yet on primitive earth, equal numbers of right and left handed nucleotides would have been present. When we put equal numbers of both kinds of nucleotides in our reaction mixture, copying was inhibited." Clay can serve as a catalyst and concentrator for biochemical compounds. However, the clays do not produce constant stereo chemistry and they do not have any preference for forming sequences that are suited for self-replication. In addition, if clay absorption did occur there should be an abiological kerogen in the rocks dated to 4x10^9 years old but according to Ref. 21 no such feature has been discovered. It is now wonder why Orgel, a leading evolutionist in the abiogenesis field, states in Ref. 14 where he discusses the RNA-world hypothesis, "those of us who favor the RNA-world hypothesis still have to explain self-replicating RNA was created from these constituents" ... "The precise (chemical) events giving rise to the RNA world remain unclear". Leading evolutionist in the field of abiogenesis, Joyce and Orgel conclude in Ref. 28, "This discussion .. has, in a sense, focused on a straw man: the myth of a self-replicating RNA molecule that arose de novo form a soup of random polynucleotides. Not only is such a notion unrealistic in light of our current understanding of prebiotic chemistry, but it should strain the credulity of even the optimist's view of RNA's catalytic potential .. Without evolution it appears unlikely that a self-replicating ribozyme could arise, but without some form of self-replication there is no way to conduct an evolutionary search for the first, primitive self-replicating ribozyme." As shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2 the ribozyme rRNA plays a key role in the translation of RNA into a protein. 10. CONCLUSION There appears no special symmetry about life forming DNA or protein that causes the proper nucleic acid or protein sequences to form spontaneously. In addition, there is apparently no special feature in nature that causes the proper nucleic acid or protein structures to form spontaneously, even in an environment which has energy flowing through it. Thus, the only natural mechanism left for naturally producing the proper DNA or protein sequences for the 1st replicator is just the pure chance of them forming through random intermingling in a prebiotic soup. The requirement of constant stereochemistry produces a fundamental barrier. The proper sequence that will perform the important functions are appearently a very small fraction of the total possible sequences. The coiled up biological molecules appear impossible to self-replicate; thus, obtaining a realistic single protein or RNA strand that can self-replicate appears to be beyond chance. The interdependency of the nucleic acids and proteins which are crucial for replication in all cells appears impossible to achieve by replicators progressing in a step by step sequence guided by natural selection but limited by mutations and copying errors. These problems mentioned in this article and others give the impression that all routes on the fitness terrain leading to the cell are insurmountable by natural processes. It is no wonder why the discover of DNA, Francis Crick concedes in Ref. 8, "An honest man, armed with all the knowledge available to us now, could only state that in some sense, the origin of life appears at the moment to be almost a miracle". 11. REFERENCES 1. Atkins, P.W., Physical Chemistry, W. W. Freeman and Company, 1982 2. Isaaik, M., Five Major Misconceptions about Evolution, Internet TALK.ORIGINS Newsgroup FAQ 3. Godfrey, L., Scientist Confront Creationist, Norton, 1984 4. Copedge, Evolution: Possible or Impossible, Zondervan 5. 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